Stripe payment received but GF entry not created

I have an issue where payments are being received by Stripe, but an entry wasn’t registered by Gravity Forms (checked spam, as well). What is making this challenging to diagnose is that when I test purchases on my end, it works fine. But a client submitted an entry, they were charged by Stripe, but it is nowhere to be found in GF. FWIW, the client paid by WeChat pay.

We have GF forms set up as a two-page process. Information is entered on page one, then client taken to page two for payment.

I’ve seen similar issues reported in the past, but no one posted a resolution. Hoping someone found one.